Neri-Arboleda, I., P. Stott, N. Arboleda. There are a variety of reasons why tarsiers may be suicidal, as there is no one definitive answer. young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth/hatching. They can become aggressive and stressed in captivity and may even injure themselves. "Tarsius" associates with others of its species; forms social groups. Implantation of the zygote is the same as that of lemuroids and . March 26, 2018 National Science Foundation Their diet is mostly insectivorous, but some species will prey on small birds and rodents, crabs, frogs, bats, or snakes (MacKinnon, 1980). Any evidence of captive lifespan is not directly applicable to wild tarsier lifespan. Tarsiers shared more recent transposon families with squirrel monkeys and humans, and only the oldest ones with bushbabies, indicating that tarsiers belong with the dry-nosed primates. Journal of Human Evolution, 113: 38-82. On average, groups only consist of a single male, known as an alpha male by some. It thrives in both old-growth and secondary forests but can also be found in low scrubby vegetation, even around villages. Topics at www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/673313. On the island of Celebes (Sulawesi) these calls are duetsdifferent but complementary calls made by the male and female. (Gursky-Doyen, 2010). International Journal of Primatology, 31/6: 1083-1106. How much does a tarsier cost. Contributor Galleries Tarisers are any of the primates in the family Tarsiidae. The only time they may become aggressive is if they feel threatened or if their territory is invaded. They can't. The Philippine tarsier, also known as mawumag in Cebuano and other Visayan languages and mag in Waray, is a tarsier species found only in the Philippines. Human settlement in its habitat threatens its continued existence. Are tarsiers harmful? 2017. These bones are unusually long in . The longest reported lifespan in captivity is over 17 years. I may mention that I have kept snakes, including a cobra, and am therefore the less likely to be easily deceived by a bad imitation. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). 10 Best Air Purifier For Guinea Pig Smell In 2022, 7 Best Substrate For Guinea Pig Cage In 2022. Based on phylogenetic research, including molecular data, tarsiers are more closely related to humans and apes then lemurs and lorises. Some scientists argue that this venomous bite, paired with their hissing and other behaviors, evolved as a result of the species mimicking venomous snakes like cobras. Currently, tarsiers reside in many protected areas. The haplorrhiines, or dry nose primates, include monkeys, apes, humans, and tarsiers. They also have powerful jaws that can crush bones. through bites or scratches of an infected animal. Their favorite prey are arthropods like beetles, spiders, cockroaches, grasshoppers, and walking sticks. Tarsius species that inhabit different geographic ranges may exhibit differences in coat color, eye size, dentition, limb proportions, and hair length of tails or heels (Gron, 2010). There are several species on Celebes and its offshore islands, but most have not yet been described scientifically. Scientific Reports, 6: 1-11. This includes over a dozen species, as well as several subspecies. Mandrill Diet What Does the Mandrill Eat? However, when kept as pets, the species may spread worms and other parasites to its human owners. Are tarsiers dangerous? Taxon Information Heerschop, S., H. Zischler, S. Merker, D. Perwitasari-Farajallah, C. Driller. are tarsiers dangerous to humans; June 26, 2022. are tarsiers dangerous to humans. at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.08.001. Some tarsiers have even been known to eat birds, small reptiles like snakes or lizards, and bats. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. We sequenced the tarsier not only to determine where they fit in primate evolution, but because their physiology, anatomy and feeding behavior are very unique, said Wesley Warren, PhD, an associate professor of genetics and the studys senior author. having the capacity to move from one place to another. Tarsiers are the only mammals that are completely carnivorous. These large eyes are also the cause of their unique and weird skull structure. 2014. Tarsiers are intermediate in form between lemurs and monkeys, measuring only about 916 cm (3.56 inches) long, excluding a tail of about twice that length. Some fossils have been found in Africa, Europe, and even North America. Smith and her team made sure to expose the tarsiers to low human interactions, their known prey (only foods tarsiers consume), and most familiar environment to help decrease stress. Archuleta, S. 2019. Some species that live in groups demonstrate alloparental care, where members occasionally look after another members young. predator (adjective: predatory) A creature that preys on other animals for most or all of its food. The hind legs of a tarsier are twice as long as their body, and muscular making them particularly specialized for leaping. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology: Ecological and Evolutionary Approaches, 87: 30-45. Toxin might help them subdue the birds, bats, lizards and even tarsiers they are known to eat. MacKinnon, J., K. MacKinnon. Being touched, being kept in a cage or enclosures, bright flashes, large noises this is just a small list of the things that can cause distress for the tarsier. tarsier, (family Tarsiidae), any of about 13 species of small leaping primates found only on various islands of Southeast Asia, including the Philippines. "Tarsius" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Gursky, S. 2002. No, tarsiers are not dangerous to humans. Your Privacy Rights Groves, C. 2018. These small-bodied, nocturnal, solitary creatures resemble lower primates in their behavior but genetically, DNA evidence aligns them more closely with higher . The duet vocalizations are likely a mating call to lead males to females. The lack of eye shine makes tarsiers one of the most difficult nocturnal animals in Borneo to locate. As I went into the room I looked at the cage, which was on the floor, and on the top of it I saw the outline of a cobra sitting up with hood expanded, and threatening a cat who crouched about six feet away. They eat insects, lizards, and small birds. When you think of venomous animals, you probably think of snakes or spiders. However, there is much more to tarsiers than meets their eyes! Some tarsiers have distinct vocalizations to mob, or ward off, a predator (Gursky-Doyen 2010). Omissions? The island archipelagos of Southeast Asia include Sumatra, Borneo, Sulawesi, the southern Philippines, and smaller neighboring islands. Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window), Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window), Click to share on Pinterest (Opens in new window), Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window), Needlemans commit $15 million to boost drug discovery, Pediatric primary care on the front lines of teen mental health crisis, Gut bacteria affect brain health, mouse study shows, Join the Institute for Informatics Data-Justice Symposium on March 31, Affordable mental health care for employees and their children, Minds quality control center found in long-ignored brain area, Mice with hallucination-like behaviors reveal insight into psychotic illness, 2023 Washington University in St. Louis. In Indonesia and Malaysia the Western tarsier (Tarsius bancanus) has huge bulging eyes, making the head broader than it is long; it also has the longest feet, and its tail is tufted at the tip. Using geographic profiling to locate elusive nocturnal animals: a case study with spectral tarsiers. . Tarsiers may have evolved their ultrasonic skills to listen for their prey, since they feed entirely on insects . Haplorrhines are split into three groups: 1) the catarrhines, old world monkeys, apes, and humans; 2) the platyrrhines, new world (South American) monkeys, and 3) tarsiers. The photo illustrates the small size of the tarsier, a carnivorous primate whose genome has been sequenced and analyzed by scientists at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria. They weigh between 80 and 150 grams (Welman, 2017) and have an average body length of 12 centimeters (Merker, 2008). Through its affiliations with Barnes-Jewish and St. Louis Childrens hospitals, the School of Medicine is linked to BJC HealthCare. She joined WashU Medicine Marketing & Communications in 2016. an animal which directly causes disease in humans. My Blog are tarsiers dangerous to humans The Genera and Species of Tarsiidae. These clades are composed evolutionarily and geographically, as some species are only found on certain islands or in particular regions. Accessed While they may look harmless, tarsiers are equipped with long, sharp claws that they use to hunt their prey. 2023 Smithsonian Magazine . Recent studies suggest predation by domestic animals as habitats grow smaller, and people who capture and sell (Shekelle and Nietch, 2008) or who erroneously consider them pests in farmland (Canete, 2003). Although some agriculturalists consider them pests, this is a misconception because they do not negatively impact crops or farmland (Canete, 2003). In Indonesia and Malaysia, the eyes of western Tarsier animal (Tarsius bancanus) are larger, making it taller than the talus; It also has the longest legs and its tail is tufted on the leg. Welman, S., A. Tuen, B. Lovegrove. Based on phylogenetic research, including molecular data, tarsiers are more closely related to humans and apes then lemurs and lorises. They are found in human settlements and plantations. Philippine tarsiers ( Tarsius syrichta ), primates native to Southeast Asia that are often no bigger than a human hand, pass messages using an unbreakable code: ultrasonic sounds. January 05, 2018 They are so very sensitive. The negative impact of Philippine erosion is not known to humans unless it is in its native environment. It succeeds in both old-growth and secondary forestry but can be found in low-scrubbed plants, even in the village. montaukett tribe membership. Evolution of acidic mammalian chitinase genes (CHIA) is related to body mass and insectivory in primates. Learn about tarsiers and a visit to the Philippine Tarsier and Wildlife Sanctuary in Corella, Bohol island. The researchers then compared transposon families of tarsiers, humans, bushbabies (a wet-nosed primate) and squirrel monkeys (a dry-nosed primate). Accessed Other Recommended Reading Tarsier dentition indicates an insectivorous diet, but some species will prey on small birds and rodents, crabs, frogs, bats, or snakes (MacKinnon, 1980). Adults live in monolithic joints and use loud calls at night to protect the area against other joints and keep them in contact at night. Does Silver Springs Have Monkeys in Florida? Other tarsier fun facts are that they are named after their anklebones. The tarsiers eyes are bigger than their brain, and their stomach. [21] It will help us determine how endangered they really are so we can implement measures to better protect them.. If an amino acid has been uniquely changed and it is putatively associated with the tarsiers novel musculature, maybe its an important part of the protein and worthy of a closer look when linked to human disease.. Slow lorisesare known for their cuteness. In other words, India and southeast Asia. Since, for example, the tarsiers eyes and ankle bones differ so much from those of other primates, the genes associated with eye or bone growth and development are likely to differ as well. Bohol Tarsiers (Tarsius Syrichta) measures 4 to 5 inches and is considered as the world's smallest primate. "The tarsier genome is a modern archive of evolutionary changes that led to humans." Having the complete tarsier genome also allowed the researchers to comprehensively study the genes that make tarsiers unique. Mating pairs are territorial, while individuals in social species are often not (MacKinnon, 1980). No products in the cart. Other unique adaptations include the claws on their second and third digits, padded fingers, and long tarsal bones at their heels (Gron, 2010). Frontiers in Physiology, 8/745: 1-13. With increasing Human activity in areas throughout much of their natural range, Tarsiers are being pushed into smaller and more isolated pockets of their once extensive and rich habitats. Their teeth and jaws are more similar to wet-nosed primates such as lemurs, but their eyes and noses are more similar to dry-nosed primates such as monkeys and humans. 11th floor, Nihonodori , Naka-ku , Yokohama 231-0021 help@codetots.com March 26, 2018 Tarsiers are classified with monkeys, apes, and humans (infraorder Simiiformes) in the suborder Haplorrhini, but it constitutes a separate infraorder, Tarsiiformes. Our community includes recognized innovators in science, medical education, health care policy and global health. Disclaimer: Lovegrove, B. Sea . communicates by producing scents from special gland(s) and placing them on a surface whether others can smell or taste them, breeding is confined to a particular season, reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female. The Animal Diversity Web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students. Some farmers mistakenly believe tarsiers eat crops and may kill the tarsiers. Such a mix of features . Tarsiers shared more recent transposon families with squirrel monkeys and humans, and only the oldest ones with bushbabies, indicating that tarsiers belong with the dry-nosed primates. (Shekelle and Nietch, 2008), Tarsiers draw crowds of eco-tourism, trophy hunters, and animal collectors. Genome sequence of the basal haplorrhine primate Tarsius syrichta reveals unusual insertions. Nature Communications. However, like monkeys, apes, and humans, they have a nose that is dry and hair-covered, not moist . These small, nocturnal primates are not known to be aggressive, and they are more likely to run away from humans than to attack them. uses smells or other chemicals to communicate, helpers provide assistance in raising young that are not their own. When in the presence of a terrestrial predator, such as a snake, individuals mob the threat. Into the Light: The Origin of Anthropoidea. Socialization includes grooming each other, scent marking, vocalizing (including duetting), and playing (Gursky, 1998). Tarsius tumpara is considered critically endangered. In 2020, she won a bronze for "Minds quality control center found in long-ignored brain area" and in 2022 a silver for "Mice with hallucination-like behaviors reveal insight into psychotic illness.". Social media posts say that chitin, a compound contained in insect exoskeletons, cannot be processed by the human body and that bugs are not a food for mammals. Gron, K. 2010. Groves, C., M. Shekelle. (Canete, 2003; Gursky, 2002; Shekelle and Nietch, 2008), Tarsier niches are largely as predator and prey. The mature placenta of Tarsiidae is deciduate, haemochorial, and discoidal (Figure 10.5), similar to that of Anthropoidea.The initial ontogenetic events in Tarsius are identical to those in prosimians (except for different patterns of implantation). However, in one wild study, average head and body lengths for spectral tarsiers ( T. tarsier) were significantly higher at 24.3 cm (9.6 in) (male) and 23.0 cm (9.1 in) (female) (Gursky 2007a). Study finds adorable-looking mammal with big eyes and funny fingers on the same evolutionary branch as monkeys, great apes and humans. Tarsier: Introduction Distribution and Habitat Identification and Behavior Communication, Life Cycle and Diet Threats, Conservation, and Future : Introduction: Tarsiers are primates (a group including lemurs, monkeys, apes and humans) found only in the islands of Southeast Asia.There is debate among scientists over how many types of Tarsier exist and whether there are more yet to be described. Their legs and feet are adapted for sudden, powerful leaps, with an elongated ankle bone, the tarsus, for which they are named. They are nocturnal animals, meaning that they are active at night and sleep during the day. However, if a tarsier does feel threatened, it may bite in self-defense. Determinants of gregariousness in the spectral tarsier(Prosimian: Tarsius spectrum). 2003. Tarsiers shared more recent transposon families with squirrel monkeys and humans, and only the oldest ones with bushbabies, indicating that tarsiers belong with the dry-nosed primates. Some scholarly articles suggest dividing the genus into 3 and some references reflect this attempted revised taxonomy. (On-line). (On-line). Posted by February 14, 2022 avatar characters fire nation on are tarsiers dangerous to humans February 14, 2022 avatar characters fire nation on are tarsiers dangerous to humans If you touch a tarsier, the chances are that nothing will happen. They are host to many different endo- and ectoparasites, including mites and intestinal worms (Shekelle and Nietch, 2008). The Tarsier might look cute, but its in fact dangerous. Driller, C., S. Merker, D. Perwitasari-Farajallah, W. Sinaga, N. Anggraeni, H. Zischler. Tarsiers are not dangerous to humans, only to insects like crickets that tarsiers feed on. Convergent in birds. Tarsiers have incredibly sharp claws that they use to grasp onto their prey. This can lead to them feeling constantly hungry, which can be frustrating and lead to feelings of despair. Tarsiers are also known to eat almost every part of their catch including bones and feet. This article was most recently revised and updated by, 10 Animals With Evolutionary Traits Plucked Straight Out of a Nightmare. However, if kept as pets, the species can spread insects and other parasites among its human owners. They exhibit mating calls referred to as "duets" to find and monitor mate ranges. Other species form groups that are exclusively male or female, and the two sexes only come into contact to breed. Conservation Genetics of the Philippine Tarsier: Cryptic Genetic Variation Restructures Conservation Priorities for an Island Archipelago Primate. Findings refine understanding of primate evolution. The researchers are hoping to obtain DNA from other tarsier species and populations, which they plan to use to assess the health of the tarsier population, among other studies. at http://www.jstor.org/stable/29792525. Tarsiers are interesting animals because they can rotate their heads 180 degrees. Even dogs with their super hearing can only hear up to 65 kHz, and humans can typically only hear up to 20 kHz. Gursky, S. 1998. Is Cockroach harmful to human? Galago Pet Can I have a Bush Baby as a Pet. (Driller, et al., 2015; Zijlstra, et al., 2013), Tarsiers strictly inhabit forests of Southeast Asia. Tarsiers are protected through international treaties (Shekelle et al, 2018). Consistently ranked a top medical school for research, Washington University School of Medicine is also a catalyst in the St. Louis biotech and startup scene. There is strong debate regarding Tarsius phylogeny. Accessed The tail is roughly twice the head and body length (Shekelle 2003). Jumping genes help us understand how species diverged from one another over millions of years ago, Schmitz said. Tarsiers Are Named After Their Anklebones. This was the Loris, who, with his arms and shoulders hunched up, was a sufficiently good imitation of a cobra to take me in, as he swayed on his long legs, and every now and then let out a perfect cobra's hiss. Primates, 2: 161-164. word instagram iphone. Though we edit our accounts for accuracy, we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts. However, if kept as pets, the species can spread insects and other parasites among its human owners. "Few people have ever researched loris venom, so few hypotheses have been generated," lead author Anna Nekaris, the director of Oxford Brookes University'sLittle Fireface Project, told mongabay.com. Tarsiers are shorter-lived than many other primates. However, the price can vary depending on the specific species and where you purchase it from. found in the oriental region of the world. Their pelage is mostly grey, with hues of red, yellow, or brown (Gron, 2010). ADW doesn't cover all species in the world, nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe. There are several species on Celebrus and its offshore islands but most have not yet been scientifically described. 1997. Villagers of western Indonesia and Malaysia . Required fields are marked *. There are many animals in the world that are dangerous to humans, but there are also some that are not dangerous at all. In fact, tarsiers are actually known for their bashfulness, which makes them easy to stress out. The researchers noted that tarsiers share their . Apes are found in Africa and South East Asia, and tarsiers are found only in South East . January 05, 2018 primate The order of mammals that includes humans, apes, monkeys and related animals (such as tarsiers, the Daubentonia and other lemurs). Shekelle, M. 2010. The authors based their findings on a genetic study of tarsiers, the enigmatic elfin primate that branched off early on from monkeys, apes and humans. So, while tarsiers may not technically be able to bite, they can still cause you some pain if they decide to scratch you with their claws. Straus, W. 1931. morgan wallace dangerous lyrics . Advertising Notice However, as insectivores, only insects are making their way on to the typical menu for the tarsier. Still, many die within a few days because of a lack of food or appropriate living conditions. (Groves and Shekelle, 2010; Ross, 2000; Wiesemuller and Hartmut, 1999), Tarsiers are small furry primates with large red eyes, small dentition, and short limbs and hands relative to other primates (Groves, 2010). Accessed Proceedings: Biological Sciences, 264/1388: 1687-1694. In groups other group members might make brief visits to check up on the infant while the mother is away. Accessed at http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/summary/21491/0. 2008. They are also very shy and will not approach humans unless they are absolutely sure that they want to. The oldest individual caught in the wild is estimated at 10 years old. Diet: Western tarsiers eat primarily large insects, including beetles, cockroaches, praying mantis, cicadas . Tarsiers 'distant cousins' of humans. In captivity, however, they may be kept in a quiet environment which can lead to sensory overload and distress. However, tarsiers are at risk, if insecticides are . are tarsiers dangerous to humans7ds grand cross banner schedule7ds grand cross banner schedule Physiological Zoology, 60: 596-600. With the dagger-like teeth of lemurs and lorises and the eye structures of monkeys, apes, and humans, tarsiers appear to be caught between the two distinct primate lineages. . Molecular Biology and Evolution, msx312: 1-10. at www.jstor.org/stable/29542959. This small nocturnal primate genus consists of 10 tarsier species including; T. dentatus, T. fuscus, T. lariang, T. pelengensis, T. pumilus, T. sangirensis, T. supriatnai, T. tarsier, T. tumpara, and T. wallacei (Groves, 2018). 2016. are tarsiers dangerous to humans. In the past, primates were frequently divided into two major groups. All species experience sexual dimorphism and females tend to be smaller than males. Species differ so much across this range that some authorities are inclined to classify them in different genera. The behavior of wild spectral tarsiers. Accessed Accessed The fur is thick, silky, and coloured gray to dark brown. Here are a few things that make the tarsier a fantastic animal. What they dont know is that tarsiers are actually quite dangerous to humans. Tarsiers possess a unique spinal column that permits the ability to turn their heads almost 360 degrees. at http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/tarsier. 1987. Effects of radio transmitter weight on a small nocturnal primate. Several species of tarsiers are sexually dimorphic, with males larger in body size . . She holds a double bachelor's degree in molecular biophysics & biochemistry and in sociology from Yale University, a master's in public health from the University of California, Berkeley, and a PhD in biomedical science from the University of California, San Diego. Some natives to Southeastern Asia, where tarsiers reside, make a living off of the attraction they draw (Canete, 2003). PLoS One, 10/11: 1-20. single family homes for sale milwaukee, wi; 5 facts about tulsa, oklahoma in the 1960s; minuet mountain laurel for sale; kevin costner daughter singer Thats right, even larger primates like most monkeys and gorillas still eat fruits or vegetation. Population in the human habitation threatens continuous existence of the Tarsier animal. No matter what the cause, it is clear that tarsiers may be suicidal due to a variety of reasons. February 12, 2018 Order Premiums, the third most diverse sequence of mammals with 300 or more species. Some scholarly articles suggest dividing the genus into 3 and some references reflect this attempted revised taxonomy. Nocturnal primates that live in Southeast Asia, the loriseshave round heads, big eyes,fuzzy fur, andif they lick a gland under their arms and combine the secretion there with their salivaa less-than-adorable toxic bite. Other groups may also join in when they hear this call, which means that you may have multiple males attacking a single predator with their venomous bites before they separate again. Tarsiers are lemurlike in being nocturnal and having a well-developed sense of smell. The Anatomical Record : Advances in Integrative Anatomy and Evolutionary Biology, 301: 202-215. The hind legs of the tarsier are longer percentage-wise than any other mammal. Schmitz, J., A. Noll, C. Raabe, G. Churakov, R. Voss, M. Kiefmann, T. Rozhdestvensky, J. Brosius, R. Baetsch, H. Clawson, C. Roos, A. Zimin, P. Minx, M. Montague, R. Wilson, W. Warren. Forest clearance occurs in much of their natural range for plantation of such things as palm oil trees. Some species that stay in groups will let males join. Guides can find them by a musky scent. However, fossils of currently existing species, known as extant species, have only been found in southeast Asia. However, in captivity they are often kept alone, which can lead to feelings of loneliness and isolation. Tarsiers are primates, just like humans. Signs of advanced aging may include graying of hair around the face and dental wear (Shekelle and Nietch, 2008). Western Tarsiers (Philippine) . Tarsier songs and human language are different in many ways. Tarsiers move through the forest by launching themselves from trunk to trunk propelled by their greatly elongated hind limbs. In contrast, they have similar characteristics to apes and humans, like their lack of a tapetum lucidum. 2014. By sequencing the complete genome of a tarsier, Warren, Jrgen Schmitz of the University of Mnster in Germany, and colleagues definitively placed tarsiers in the dry-nosed category. The tarsier (pronounced TAR-see-er) are small primates found only in the islands of Southeast Asia. Searching for the Haplorrhine Heterotherm: Field and Laboratory Data of Free-Ranging Tarsiers. However, this isnt necessarily why theyre difficult to keep in captivity. 2017. at https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msx312. (Canete, 2003), Like most primates, some parasites and diseases can be passed from tarsiers to humans. Males often leave to live alone or join other groups between 1 to 2 years of age (MacKinnon, 1980). Whats the Difference Between Monkeys and Apes? However, overall, there have been only 17 fatal incidents involving stingrays and humans over . Shekelle, M., A. Nietch. the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic. Another one of the most shocking facts about the tarsier? The negative impact of Philippine erosion is not known to humans unless it is in its native environment. The Tarsiers live in the southern Philippines, Celebres (Sulawesi), Borneo, Banka, Belitung, Natuna Islands, and Sumatra. In the village area, tarsiers can be found around the trees and vegetation. However, if kept as pets, the species can spread insects and other parasites among its human owners. Species vary so much across this range that some authorities tend to categorize them into different genera. Toxin might help them subdue the birds, bats, lizards and even tarsiers they are known to eat. They reside in both primary and secondary habitats. As a result, it isnt considered to ethical to keep them, especially for long periods of time or for non-conservation purposes. Males travel longer distances and occupy a larger area, while females hunt more efficiently and consume more insects (Neri-Arboleda et al, 2002).
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